Theories of Motivation

Motivation is the driving force that stimulates an individual to initiate and sustain behavior. Motivation results from extrinsic motives (such as incentives, bonuses, appreciation certificates, rewards, punishments, promotion, and demotion) as well as intrinsic motives (such as hunger, thirst, relief from pain, curiosity, fear of rejection, psychological needs, and desires).

The three major theories of motivation are as follows:

1. Incentive Theory
2. Drive Reduction Theory
3. Instinctive Theory

   Incentive Theory of Motivation

This theory is a product of the work of many behavioral psychologists, including B. F. Skinner. The main assumption of the theory is as follows:

‘Individuals are motivated towards certain actions by external incentives: rewards and punishments.’

This theory suggests that motivation is a result of external incentives. Incentives are rewards and punishments that motivate an individual to engage in an action. It includes bonuses, allowances, increases in pay, promotion or demotion in a job, appreciation certificates, medals, and penalties. These incentives give a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction or a feeling of displeasure or dissatisfaction, which serve as a driving force for motivating an individual.

The term ‘external’ means that these motives originate from outside the human body. Unlike internal motives such as hunger and thirst, these motives come from outside the human body, such as bonuses and allowances. These incentives are designed in organizations to enhance the productivity of their employees. Similarly, such incentives may be used to motivate students towards their academics.

There are two types of incentives: positive and negative incentives.

Positive Incentives: These are the incentives which fulfill the needs or wants of an individual. These are also called rewards. They give pleasure and satisfaction to the individual. It includes bonuses, allowances, prizes, appreciation certificates, car gifts, home gifts, promotion in a job, a pay increase, and so on.

Negative Incentives: These are the incentives which threaten the benefits of an individual or inflict pain on the individual. These are also called punishments. They give displeasure and dissatisfaction. It includes penalties, fines, and demotion in a job.

   Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

This theory was presented by Clark Hull and was further explained by his collaborators, including Kenneth Spence. The main assumption of the theory is as follows:

‘Human beings are motivated towards action by their attempt to reduce their internal state of tension caused by biological drives.’

Human beings have certain biological needs such as food and water. When these needs are not fulfilled, they create an internal state of tension. The term drive refers to this state of internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. For example, hunger and thirst are biological drives – states of internal tension.

According to this theory, humans are motivated towards action by their attempt to reduce this state of internal tension or biological drive. For example, when a person feels hungry, he is motivated to get some food and eat it. Similarly, a person is motivated by thirst to get some water and drink it.

The reduction of the drive serves as a motivation for an individual to behave in a specific way. According to Sigmund Freud, if biological needs such as food, water, sex, relief from pain, and body temperature regulation are not met, it will result in an internal state of tension – the drive – which stimulates the individual to act accordingly to reduce the internal tension.

   Instinctive Theory of Motivation

This theory was presented by the psychologist William McDougall and was later supported by other psychologists, including Sigmund Freud. The main assumption of the theory is as follows:

‘Human beings are motivated towards action by their inborn instincts.’

This theory suggests that motivation is a result of the inborn instincts of a human being. An instinct is an inherited tendency of an organism to behave in a specific way. It is an inborn (not learnt) behavior that passes from one generation to another. For example, a newly born infant has an inborn reflex of sucking, which helps him seek out the mother’s nipple to obtain nourishment. Similarly, birds have an inborn instinct of nest-building behavior.

According to this theory, human behavior is driven by these instincts. These instincts provide energy that fuels behavior. According to the psychologist William James, human instincts include fear, anger, love, shyness, modesty, and curiosity. Human beings are born with these pre-programmed sets of behavior, which motivate the individual accordingly.

According to the proponents of this theory, various behaviors can be viewed as responses to instincts. For example, exploratory behavior can be explained as a response to the curiosity instinct of a human being. Similarly, sex can be viewed as a response to an instinct for reproduction.